HOW A FEMALE X CHROMOSOME IS INACTIVATED

Chromosomes differentiate men from women. A woman's somatic cells have two X chromosomes, while a man's carry only one. If both X chromosomes and all of their genes were to be active in women, they would have twice as many copies of the proteins that they produce in men. This would consequently result in a disequilibrium that would disrupt the finely balanced biochemistry of the human body

Nature ensures this does not happen: one of the X chromosomes is completely and permanently inactivated during a female's early development in the womb. The mechanism responsible for this inactivation is not yet fully understood. However, research into mice has shown that a ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule called Xist plays a pivotal role in the process. Several hundred copies of this molecule attach themselves to one of the two X chromosomes. Scientists believe that these RNA molecules dock onto other molecules which then inactivate the chromosome. A team of researchers lead by Anton Wutz, Professor of Genetics at ETH Zurich, have now discovered several of these inactivation molecules.

Screening to rescue cells

To this end, scientists used mouse stem cells, which exhibited two particular characteristics. Firstly, like unfertilised egg cells (and in contrast to somatic cells), they had just one instance of each chromosome. Secondly, they were modified to a degree that allowed the scientists to continuously produce the Xist RNA. This led to the inactivation of the single X chromosome and the death of the cells, since the genes needed for their continued survival could no longer be read.

In a large-scale screening experiment using these stem cells, scientists were able to identify which genes were important for X inactivation. It is possible to think of the experiment as a sort of rescue operation for the stem cells that would otherwise have died. Specifically, researchers used a virus to randomly damage individual genes in the genetic material of a large number of stem cells . Virus insertions that destroyed a gene, which was required for Xist RNA to inactivate the X chromosome, the X chromosome was not inactivated, and the corresponding cells survived.

The scientists were thus able to isolate surviving stem cells and identify seven genes that are central to X inactivation. One of them is called Spen. Scientists were already aware that Spen produces a protein which allows it to bind with RNA and essentially prevents the genes from being read. In other experiments, ETH researchers were able to show that if a mouse cell lacks the Spen gene, the proteins responsible for altering chromosome structure are not able to accumulate as efficiently at the X chromosome. ETH Professor Wutz explains that further research is required to understand exactly how this mechanism works and what role the other recently discovered genes play in it.

Research made possible thanks to earlier advances

"Genetic research such as this is extraordinarily complex," says Wutz. For example, a significant body of knowledge about mammalian genetics comes from conclusions yielded by research into drosophilidae (fruit flies), which are a model organism for biology and, in particular, for genetic research. Unlike mammals, however, fruit flies have a different chromosome system that does not include X inactivation. You cannot therefore draw on fruit-fly genetics to find gene candidates in mammals.

According to the professor, methodological advances made in recent years have made his research possible. Research of this type is now possible thanks to stem cells with the simple set of chromosomes, created by Wutz five years ago while he was still at the University of Cambridge.

The ETH researchers published their work in the latest issue of the scientific journal Cell Reports. A British research team also published its findings in the same issue. Using a different method -- RNA interference -- they discovered several of the genes involved in X inactivation. One of them is Spen.

Slight differences in humans

The genes for Xist and Spen are found in humans as well. Thus, as Wutz points out, this research offers us some insight into the human system -- at least at the theoretical level, as mouse genetics cannot be mapped directly to humans.

A few years ago, a team of French researchers postulated that, in addition to Xist, humans also have another system which ensures that the single X chromosome in men and one of the two X chromosomes in women remain active. This activating system does not exist in mice. Due to the interplay of activating and inactivating factors, regulation of X chromosomes in humans might therefore be more complicated than originally thought. Geneticists wanting to understand these processes in detail still have plenty of work ahead of them.

Chromosomes differentiate men from women. A woman's somatic cells have two X chromosomes, while a man's carry only one. If both X chromosomes and all of their genes were to be active in women, they would have twice as many copies of the proteins that they produce in men. This would consequently result in a disequilibrium that would disrupt the finely balanced biochemistry of the human body

HOMOEOPATHIC REMEDIES FOR FEMALE INFERTILITY

Infertility means that couples have been trying to get pregnant with frequent intercourse for at least a year with no success. Female infertility, male infertility or a combination of the two affects millions of couples in all over the world.. An estimated 10 to 15 percent of couples have trouble getting pregnant or getting to a successful delivery.

Infertility results from female infertility factors about one-third of the time and male infertility factors about one-third of the time. In the rest, the cause is either unknown or a combination of male and female factors.

The cause of female infertility can be difficult to diagnose, but many treatments are available. Treatment options depend on the underlying problem. Treatment isn't always necessary — many infertile couples will go on to conceive a child spontaneously.

Causes--To become pregnant, each of these factors is essential:

·         You need to ovulate.Achieving pregnancy requires that your ovaries produce and release an egg, a process known as ovulation. Your doctor can help evaluate your menstrual cycles and confirm ovulation.

·         Your partner needs sperm. For most couples, this isn't a problem unless your partner has a history of illness or surgery. Your doctor can run some simple tests to evaluate the health of your partner's sperm.

·         You need to have regular intercourse. You need to have regular sexual intercourse during your fertile time. Your doctor can help you better understand when you're most fertile during your cycle.

·         You need to have open fallopian tubes and a normal uterus. The egg and sperm meet in the fallopian tubes, and the pregnancy needs a healthy place to grow.

For pregnancy to occur, every part of the complex human reproduction process has to take place just right. The steps in this process are as follows:

·         One of the two ovaries releases a mature egg.

·         The egg is picked up by the fallopian tube.

·         Sperm swim up the cervix, through the uterus and into the fallopian tube to reach the egg for fertilization.

·         The fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

·         The fertilized egg implants and grows in the uterus.

In women, a number of factors can disrupt this process at any step. Female infertility is caused by one or more of these factors.

Ovulation disorders

Ovulation disorders, meaning you ovulate infrequently or not at all, account for infertility in about 25 percent of infertile couples. These can be caused by flaws in the regulation of reproductive hormones by the hypothalamus or the pituitary gland, or by problems in the ovary itself.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). In PCOS, complex changes occur in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and ovaries, resulting in a hormone imbalance, which affects ovulation. PCOS is associated with insulin resistance and obesity, abnormal hair growth on the face or body, and acne. It's the most common cause of female infertility.

Hypothalamic dysfunction. The two hormones responsible for stimulating ovulation each month — follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) — are produced by the pituitary gland in a specific pattern during the menstrual cycle. Excess physical or emotional stress, a very high or very low body weight, or a recent substantial weight gain or loss can disrupt this pattern and affect ovulation. The main sign of this problem is irregular or absent periods.

Premature ovarian insufficiency. This disorder is usually caused by an autoimmune response where your body mistakenly attacks ovarian tissues or by premature loss of eggs from your ovary due to genetic problems or environmental insults such as chemotherapy. It results in the loss of the ability to produce eggs by the ovary, as well as a decreased estrogen production under the age of 40.

Too much prolactin. Less commonly, the pituitary gland can cause excess production of prolactin (hyperprolactinemia), which reduces estrogen production and may cause infertility. Most commonly this is due to a problem in the pituitary gland, but it can also be related to medications you're taking for another disease.

Damage to fallopian tubes (tubal infertility)

When fallopian tubes become damaged or blocked, they keep sperm from getting to the egg or block the passage of the fertilized egg into the uterus. Causes of fallopian tube damage or blockage can include:

·         Pelvic inflammatory disease, an infection of the uterus and fallopian tubes due to chlamydia, gonorrhea or other sexually transmitted infections

·         Previous surgery in the abdomen or pelvis, including surgery for ectopic pregnancy, in which a fertilized egg becomes implanted and starts to develop in a fallopian tube instead of the uterus

·         Pelvic tuberculosis, a major cause of tubal infertility worldwide, although uncommon in the United States

Endometriosis

Endometriosis occurs when tissue that normally grows in the uterus implants and grows in other locations. This extra tissue growth — and the surgical removal of it — can cause scarring, which may obstruct the tube and keep the egg and sperm from uniting. It can also affect the lining of the uterus, disrupting implantation of the fertilized egg. The condition also seems to affect fertility in less-direct ways, such as damage to the sperm or egg.

Uterine or cervical causes

Several uterine or cervical causes can impact fertility by interfering with implantation or increasing the likelihood of a miscarriage.

·         Benign polyps or tumors (fibroids or myomas) are common in the uterus, and some types can impair fertility by blocking the fallopian tubes or by disrupting implantation. However, many women who have fibroids or polyps can become pregnant.

·         Endometriosis scarring or inflammation within the uterus can disrupt implantation.

·         Uterine abnormalities present from birth, such as an abnormally shaped uterus, can cause problems becoming or remaining pregnant.

·         Cervical stenosis, a cervical narrowing, can be caused by an inherited malformation or damage to the cervix.

·         Sometimes the cervix can't produce the best type of mucus to allow the sperm to travel through the cervix into the uterus

Unexplained infertility

In some instances, a cause for infertility is never found. It's possible that a combination of several minor factors in both partners underlie these unexplained fertility problems. Although it's frustrating to not get a specific answer, this problem may correct itself with time.

Symptoms--The main symptom of infertility is the inability of a couple to get pregnant. A menstrual cycle that's too long (35 days or more), too short (less than 21 days), irregular or absent can be a sign of lack of ovulation, which can be associated with female infertility. There may be no other outward signs or symptoms.

HOMOEOPATHIC REMEDIES

ABROMA RADIX Q—Abroma radix is a good remedy for female infertility when irregular menstrual disorder occurs. Dysmenorrhoea. The menstrual flow may be scanty or copious. Give 5 drops in water three times daily from the first day of menstrual flow for seven days, it will correct menstrual disorder and will bring on conception , if intercourse is performed after cessation of menses.

BORAX 30—Borax is one of the top homoeopathic medicines for infertility in females due to acid vaginal discharges.These vaginal discharges are acrid , destructive and kill the sperms.   It is prescribed  when the vaginal discharge is like the white of an egg, acrid, copious and warm. In such cases, Borax favors easy conception. It is a an effective remedy when conception is difficult after D & C.

NATRUM PHOS 30-Natrum Phos is   another remedy for acid vaginal discharge which kill sperms.Natrum Phos.is   indicated for infertility in women who have acrid, irritating, creamy, honey-colored vaginal discharges. The discharge also smells sour.

CALCAREA CARB. 30-Calcarea carb. is an effective remedy for infertility in females due to too profuse or too prolonged periods.  The periods also appear before time.

ALETRIS FARINOSA Q- In  Aletris farinosa, the main symptoms are early and copious menses with infertility.  Leucorrhea, anaemia, weakness, tiredness and fatigue may also persist with menorrhagia.Aletris Farinosa is also prescribed where a tendency for frequent abortions is person.

PULSATILLA NIG. 30-Pulsatilla is one of the top homoeopathic medicines for infertility in females with short , scanty menses.  Pulsatilla is  homeopathic medicine for infertility in women who have faced menstrual irregularities since their menarche. The menses always get delayed and never appear on the expected date. The menstrual discharge is also scanty and remains for a very short time. Pulsatilla also tops the list of homeopathic medicines for infertility in females suffering from PCOD.

SEPIA 30-  Sepia is prescribed for infertility in females where the menses are short, scanty and suppressed. Along with this a prominent symptom of bearing down sensation in uterus may be present. Aversion to sex is also present. The vagina may be excessively dry with pain while intercourse.

AGNUS CASTUS 30-Agnus csatus is an effective remedy for infertility in females with decreased sexual desire. Agnus Castus is used when aversion to sex is there. Excessive masturbation may be a cause behind this. The genitals are also relaxed with transparent vaginal discharges.

NATRUM CARB. 30- Natrum carb. is the top remedy for infertility  in females due to non retention of sperms.  Offensive and irritating vaginal discharges may also be present. . There is a strong bearing down feeling as if every thing would come out. It is more by sitting and relieved by moving about. Profuse leucorrhea of thick yellow mucus with putrid odor. Menses are late, scanty, like the meat of washing. Menses too early and is too profuse .Excessive sexual desire. 

STAPHYSAGRIA 30-It is one of the top remedy for female infertility when no specific cause is found. There is thick cervical  mucous secretion which were detrimental to the sperms. Also due to spasm of the vagina , no sperm was going in to the vagina.

ACID PHOS 30—It isa great remedy for primary sterility due to debilitated condition such as tuberculosis and diabetes. Menses are too early and too profuse, irregularThe PH of vaginal secreation turn in to acidic form therefore sperm deposited there die soon. Indifferent and apathetic

GRAPHITES 200- Another top remedy for sterility. It is suited to women who are fat but now emaciating. Chilly patient. Menses too late with constipation, pale , scanty, with tearing pain in epigastrium. Decided aversion to coition .Sterility difficult conception. Lay is sad and despondent, music makes her sad.

NATRUM MURIATICUM 200- Natrum mur. is another top remedy for female sterility. Women of dark hair and dark complexion having rigid muscle fibres. Menses too early and too profuse. Genital organs are highly sensitive. The lady will faint if coitus is attempted and cannot endure it . Craving for salt.

GOSSYPIUM 30-Gossypium is effective when the uterus is undeveloped or weak. There is scanty or delayed menses. Severe back pain and pain in the sacral region. Also there is uterine sub involution  and fibroids with gastric pain and debility.

Email- plantmedicines@yahoo.com